Archeological Findings and Sarah's Treatment of Hagar

After years of suffering without a child, Sarah told Avraham to marry their Egyptian maidservant Hagar. Sarah felt that the blessings that Hashem had promised to give to Avraham's offspring could not possibly be fulfilled through her because of her old age and she told Avraham to fulfill his destiny through Hagar. Shortly after marrying Avraham, Hagar conceived a child (Breishit 16:4)

ויבא אל הגר ותהר ותרא כי הרתה ותקל גברתה בעיניה
He consorted with Hagar and she conceived; and when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was lowered in her esteem.

Sarah had hoped that Hagar and Avraham would have a child together, but she did not anticipate that this would lead Hagar to belittle her. Rashi comments,

אמרה שרי זו אין סתרה כגלויה, מראה עצמה כאלו היא צדקת ואינה צדקת, שלא זכתה להריון כל השנים הללו, ואני נתעברתי מביאה ראשונה
She said, 'This Sarai her conduct in secret is not like her conduct in public. She shows herself as if she is a righteous woman, but she is not a righteous woman, for she did not merit to conceive all these years, whereas I have conceived from the first union.'

Sarah complained to Avraham about Hagar's negative attitude and he told her that she was free to do with her whatever she saw fit. The Torah tells us (16:6)

ותעניה שרי ותברח מפניה
And Sarai dealt harshly with her, so she fled from her.

What exactly did Sarah do to Hagar that caused her to runaway? Rashi writes that she enslaved her harshly. Radak, however, goes into greater detail. He writes,

ומה שעשתה שרי לא היה טוב בעיני הא-ל, כמו שאמר המלאך אל הגר: “כי שמע ה’ אל עניך” והשיב לה ברכה תחת ענויה.
And what Sarai did was not proper in the eyes of God, as the angel said to Hagar: 'for Hashem has heard your suffering' and he gave her a blessing because she had suffered.

Radak claims that Sarah sinned by treating Hagar harshly. He goes on to describe exactly what Sarah did to Hagar,

עשתה עמה יותר מדאי, ועבדה בה בפרך. ואפשר שהייתה מכה אותה ומקללת אותה, ולא הייתה יכולה לסבול וברחה מפניה... אף על פי שאברהם מחל לה על כבודו...היה ראוי לה למשוך את ידה לכבודו ולא לענותה... אין ראוי לאדם לעשות כל יכולתו במה שתחת ידו
She did too much to her and she enslaved her with hard labor. And it is possible that she beat her and cursed her, and she could not withstand it so she fled...even though Avraham gave up his honor...it would have been appropriate for her to hold back for his honor and not afflict her...It is not appropriate for a person to do all that is within their power to a subordinate.

Radak is not alone in his criticism of Sarah. The Ramban criticizes both Avraham and Sarah when he writes,

חטאה אמנו בעינוי הזה, וגם אברהם בהניחו לעשות כן
Our mother committed a great sin with her harsh treatment and Avraham also sinned by allowing her to do this

Rabbi Elchanan Samet (Iyunim L'Parashot HaShavua Vol 1 pp. 33) writes that there is evidence, found in archeological digs that might defend Sarah from her critics. He quotes a Hebrew translation of Hammurabi's Code, the system of laws developed by King Hammurabi who lived during the same time period as Avraham, Yitzchak and Yaakov. Hammurabi's code records the following law,

כי ייקח אישה כוהנת, והיא תיתן לאישה אמה, אם תלד בנים ואחרי כן תשווה עצמה לגברתה, גברתה לא תיתן אותה בכסף, מפני שילדה בנים. היא תשים עליה אות ותמנה אותה בין האמהות. אם לא תלד בנים, תיתן אותה בכסף
When a man marries a woman who is barren and she gives her husband a maidservant, if the maidservant has children and then puts herself on the same level as her mistress, her mistress may not sell her, for she has had children. She shall place a symbol on her and enumerate her amongst the maidservants. If she does not have children she may be sold.

In the time and place of Avraham it was common practice for a barren woman to give over her maidservant to her husband in order for them to have children. However, the maidservant remained a maidservant; she was not on equal footing with her mistress. Hagar viewed herself as being superior to Sarah because she conceived the first time she was with Avraham and she began to act like she was the head of the household. Sarah complained to Avraham and he told her that she was free to do what she wished, because Hagar had acted inappropriately - what she did was against the law. Hammurabi's code called for the mistress to "place a symbol on her", to do something to let the maidservant know her place in the household hierarchy. Accordingly, Sarah and Avraham did not sin when they afflicted her, it was Hagar who sinned by viewing herself as an equal.
Given this archeological evidence, one could argue that Radak and Ramban would take back what they said about Sarah's behavior. On the other hand, perhaps they would stand their ground; such behavior may have been permissible according to the letter of the law, according to Hammurabi's code, but perhaps Avraham and Sarah were expected to not simply abide by the letter of the law, but rather to go beyond it.

Escaping the Famine: Did Avraham Sin?

Not long after he arrived in Canaan, Avraham was forced to make a critical decision. He had uprooted his entire family from Charan and moved to Canaan because Hashem had commanded him to do so, but a famine had struck his new homeland (Breishit 12:10). Without the food and water he and his family needed to survive, what was Avraham to do? The Ramban (12:10) writes,

יציאתו מן הארץ, שנצטווה עליה בתחילה, מפני הרעב, עון אשר חטא, כי האלהים ברעב יפדנו ממות. ועל המעשה הזה נגזר על זרעו הגלות בארץ מצרים ביד פרעה
His leaving the Land, about which he was commanded to settle because of the famine, was a sin, for God, in times of famine, saves people from death. And because of this, the exile in Egypt was decreed on his offspring

According to Ramban, Avraham should have had faith in Hashem that He would provide for him during the tough times of the famine; just like Avraham had faith in Hashem that things would work out if he moved from Charan to Canaan, so too he should have had faith and remained in Canaan. His sin was so egregious that Hashem decreed that Avraham's children would suffer as a result and be exiled to the very Egypt that Avraham had runaway to.
Rabbi Don Isaac Abrabanel, vehemently disagrees with the Ramban's theory. He writes,

וכבר ראית דברי הרמב"ן...וכבר תפשו על הדעת הזה הר"ן כי הנה יציאתו מארץ כנען לארץ מצרים מפני הרעב חז"ל מנוהו מכלל הנסיונות ובידוע שה' צדיק יבחן ומי שיעמוד בנסיונו אין ראוי שיקרא חוטא וחליל שינסה השם את אברהם להכשילו...ודי שנאמר עתה ששתי הסבות הניעו לאברהם לרדת למצרים. האחת היא שחשב שהמצוה האלהית היתה לשבת בארץ כנען ושלא נאסר עליו מפני זה ללכת מצרים אם לסחורה או לצורך אחר כי לא היה עובר בזה על המצוה כיון שלא היה דעתו בהליכתו להתישב שמה דירת קבע אלא דירת עראי וימים אחדים עד עבור הרעב ומיד ישוב לארץ כנען וכמו שהיו עושים בני ישראל בהיותם בארץ שהיו הולכים למצרים לעשות סחורה ושבים ובזה האופן היו מעשיו של אברהם לשם שמים... וכבר זכרה התורה הסבה הזאת באמרה וירד אברם מצרים לגור שם כי היה הרעב בארץ רוצה לומר בדרך גרות לא להתישב שם. והסבה הב' היא שהמצוות האלהיות הם על תנאי אשר יעשה אותם האדם וחי בהם ולא שימות בהם
And I have already seen the words of the Ramban...Rabbeinu Nissim has already challenged this position because Avraham left the Land of Canaan for Egypt because of the famine. Furthermore our sages enumerated this as one of the tests given to Avraham and it is known that Hashem only tests the righteous and those who can stand up to his tests. It is suitable to explain that Avraham had two motives for going down to Egypt. Firstly he believed that the divine commandment was to settle in the Land of Canaan; travel to foreign countries such as Egypt for business or some other need was not forbidden. He did not violate the commandment because he did not travel there to settle, but rather he went there temporarily until the famine ended - and when it did, he immediately returned. This is what Bnei Yisrael did when they eventually settled the Land - they went to Egypt to conduct business and then returned home. In a similar vein, Avraham's actions were for the sake of Heaven. And the Torah already alludes to this fact when it says, 'Avraham went down to Egypt to dwell their because there was a famine in the land.' This means to say, he went as a stranger, not to settle. And the second reason he went to Egypt is because God's commandments are conditional - one does not need to give up their life in order to fulfill them.

Rabbi Abrabanel argues with the Ramban and claims that Avraham's actions could not have been a sin because if his acts were sinful, he would have failed one of the tests given to him by God. Furthermore, there was no sin in going to Egypt temporarily. Finally, he went to Egypt because had he stayed in Canaan he would have had to do so at the risk of his life and the lives of his family members. Hashem had commanded him to settle and live in Canaan, not to die there of starvation.

Rambam's History of Religion

The Rambam, in the first chapter of his Hilchot Avodat Kochavim, gives a brief history of religious practice beginning with the creation of the world through the birth of the Jewish people. The Rambam writes that at first man exclusively worshiped God. However during the days of Enosh (Breisht 5:6,9-11) the generation's belief system was corrupted by a mistaken theory. The people reasoned that God had placed the sun, the moon, stars and planets in the heavens because He held them in high regard. The people then reasoned further, that it would be appropriate to worship and praise the stars as a way of honoring Hashem; everyone knew that Hashem was the only God, however they felt that a king is honored when his most loyal servants are honored.
As the years went by false prophets emerged claiming that they were told by God to build temples and offer sacrifices to the sun, moon and stars. They also claimed to have been told to build images and idols of the constellations. As time went on, people began to claim that the idols and the sun and the moon and the stars were actual gods; no longer were they "servants of God", they themselves were gods. As time went on even further, the people forgot the One and true God entirely.
Rambam points out that along the way there were individuals who were able to recognize the existence of God, such as Noach, Shem, Eiver and Metushelach. However, no one was able to reach the heights that Avraham reached. Avraham, writes the Rambam, spent day and night contemplating the existence of a single God. He looked at the sun, moon and stars and believed that there must be a deity controlling them; they could not be without a leader. Finally, at the age of 40, Avraham came to the realization that there was only one God in the world. Shortly thereafter he began to spread the word of God to people of his town. He would engage in religious debates with them and would always emerge victorious. Avraham's attempts to convert people to monotheism caused him to be ridiculed by his fellow townspeople, eventually leading the king to throw him into a fiery furnace, prompting his family's move from Ur Kasdim to Charan.
Avraham successfully spread monotheism wherever he went and eventually passed on his position as God's chief advocate to his son Yitzchak who then passed it on to Yaakov. And the rest is history.

Comparing Avraham and Noach

Given their close proximity to one another in the Torah and their loyalty to Hashem, it is understandable that Chazal, through Midrashim, compare Noach and Avraham to one another. The most well known comparison is mentioned by Rashi in the beginning of Parshat Noach (Breishit 6:9). The Torah writes that Noach was a tzaddik, a righteous man, in his generation. Picking up on the words "in his generation," Rashi cites a debate that is found in the Midrash:

יש מרבותינו דורשים אותו לשבח, כל שכן שאלו היה בדור צדיקים היה צדיק יותר, ויש שדורשים אותו לגנאי, לפי דורו היה צדיק, ואלו היה בדורו של אברהם לא היה נחשב לכלום
Some of the sages interpret it (the phrase 'in his generation'), favorably: How much more so if he had lived in a generation of righteous people, he would have been even more righteous. Others interpret it derogatorily: In comparison with his generation he was righteous, but if he had been in Abraham’s generation, he would not have been considered of any importance.

Those who viewed Noach as a tzaddik who would have transcended generations believed that had he lived during a time period other than that of the evil generation of the Flood, he would have flourished even more. On the other hand, those who claim that Noach "would not have been considered of any importance" in Avraham's generation believe that Noach's righteousness was relative; he was righteous, but look at the people around him - had he lived at a time when the rest of humanity possessed the least bit of morality and integrity he would not have stood out like he did in his generation.
While the debate over the transcendence of Noach's righteousness is left unresolved, the Zohar cites another difference between Noach and Avraham, which seems to indicate that Noach's righteousness was relative. The Zohar writes,

“

ויגש אברהם ויאמר: האף תפסה צדיק עם רשע” (בראשית יח,כג) - אמר ר’ יהודה: מאן חמא אבא דרחמנותא כאברהם? תא חזי: בנח כתיב (ו,יג-יד): “ויאמר אלוקים לנח: קץ כל בשר בא לפני... והנני משחיתם את הארץ. עשה לך תבת עצי גפר...” ואשתיק ולא אמר לו מידי ולא בעי רחמי. אבל אברהם, בשעתא דאמר ליה קב”ה: “זעקת סדום ועמורה כי רבה וחטאתם כי כבדה מאד. ארדה נא ואראה...” - מיד כתיב: ויגש אברהם ויאמר: האף תפסה צדיק עם רשע
'And Abraham drew near and said, will You also destroy the righteous with the wicked? (Breishit 18:23) - said Rabbi Yehuda: Who has seen a father as compassionate as Avraham? Come and see: Regarding Noach it is stated (6:13) 'and God said to Noach, the end of all flesh is come before me;...and behold I will destroy them from the earth. Make an ark of gopher wood...' And Noach held his peace and said nothing, neither did he intercede. Whereas Avraham, as soon as the Holy One blessed be He said to him: 'Because the cry of Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and because their sin is very grievous. I will go down and see...' Immediately, as it is stated, 'And Abraham drew near and said: Will you destroy the righteous with the wicked?'

When Hashem told Noach that He was going to destroy the world and that he should build an ark to save himself and his family, Noach obediently listened. He was a tzaddik and was worthy of being saved. However, according to the Zohar, Avraham was greater because when informed that Sodom was going to be destroyed he challenged Hashem in the hopes that he would be able to save the residents of Sodom and Gomorrah.
In the words of Nechama Leibowitz (Iyunim L'Sefer Breishit pp. 46),

נח אינו ערב לאנושות, נח אין בו אחריות לעולם כולו, נח הוא מאלה הניצולים אשר את נפשם הצילו. והעולם - יחרב. והוא נחרב. “צדיק תמים?” כן, בדורותיו.
Noach a guarantor of mankind, Noach does not have a responsibility to the world as a whole. Noach belonged to those who were satisfied to save their own souls, while the world is destroyed. [He was] 'a perfect tzaddik?' Yes, but only in his generation.